Table of Contents

Understanding Synesthesia and Other Unique Sensory Experiences

1. Introduction: The Spectrum of Sensory Experience

Overview of Human Sensory Perception and Its Variations

Human experience is intricately woven from the threads of sensory perception. The process typically involves our senses detecting environmental stimuli, sending signals to the brain, which then processes this information, allowing us to recognize and understand our surroundings—a stop sign by its shape and color, or a piece of music by its melody and rhythm.¹ This model, however, represents a generalized view of perception. The reality of individual sensory experience is far richer and more varied, existing not as a monolithic entity but as a vast spectrum. For some, the brain processes sensory information in ways that lead to qualitatively different perceptual realities, challenging the assumption of a universally shared subjective world. Many individuals with these distinct experiences live for years, sometimes their entire lives, unaware that their way of perceiving is not the norm.² This often “unseen” variation in human consciousness underscores the profound diversity inherent in our species and highlights the limitations of assuming a uniform subjective experience. The realization that one’s internal world differs significantly from others often comes as a surprise, emphasizing the importance of self-report and qualitative exploration in understanding the breadth of human perception.

Introducing Unique Sensory Experiences and Neurodiversity

“Unique sensory experiences” encompass phenomena where sensory information is processed or experienced in atypical, yet often consistent and rule-governed, ways. These are increasingly understood within the broader concept of neurodiversity, which frames such variations not inherently as disorders but as natural differences in neurological makeup.¹ While some unique sensory experiences, like misophonia, can cause significant distress and impairment ⁵, many others, such as certain forms of synesthesia or aphantasia, are considered benign neurological characteristics—simply differences in how an individual’s brain is wired or functions.⁷ This perspective is crucial for fostering an empathetic and modern understanding, moving away from pathologizing all deviations from a “typical” sensory profile.

The scientific validation and public awareness of these experiences have been significantly propelled by modern advancements. While historical accounts of phenomena like synesthesia exist, dating back centuries ¹⁰, it is only in recent decades that neuroimaging technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans have allowed researchers to observe brain activity associated with these experiences, lending them objective credibility.¹ Concurrently, the rise of the internet has facilitated the formation of communities, allowing individuals with shared experiences to connect, realize they are not alone, and participate in research, which has been particularly instrumental in the study of phenomena like Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR).¹⁴ These technological and societal shifts are pivotal in transforming these once “hidden” experiences from anecdotal curiosities into legitimate and burgeoning fields of scientific inquiry.

Roadmap of Phenomena

This report aims to explore the fascinating world of these unique sensory experiences. It will delve into the intricacies of:

Synesthesia, where the stimulation of one sense involuntarily triggers experiences in another, such as seeing colors when hearing music or letters having inherent colors.¹⁰
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR), characterized by a pleasant tingling sensation often triggered by specific auditory or visual stimuli like whispering or gentle movements.¹⁸
Misophonia, where common, everyday sounds elicit intense negative emotional and physiological reactions, such as anger or disgust.⁵
Aphantasia, the lack of voluntary visual mental imagery, meaning an inability to consciously conjure pictures in the “mind’s eye”.²
Hyperphantasia, the experience of exceptionally vivid and realistic mental imagery.²¹

For each, this report will examine their defining characteristics, known prevalence, current understanding of their neurological and genetic underpinnings, their impact on individuals’ lives—including cognitive aspects, daily functioning, and well-being—and the state of awareness and research in these captivating domains of human perception.

2. Synesthesia: When Senses Intertwine

Defining Synesthesia: A Genuine Neurological Phenomenon

Synesthesia is a fascinating neurological phenomenon where stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second, unrelated pathway.¹¹ It is crucial to understand that synesthesia is not a disease, a mental disorder, or a figment of imagination; rather, it is a genuine variation in brain processing.⁷ The experiences of synesthetes are real and consistent. For instance, if a synesthete perceives the letter “A” as red, this association will typically remain stable throughout their life.

Synesthetic experiences can manifest in different ways, broadly categorized into “projector” and “associator” types.⁹ Projector synesthetes perceive their concurrent experiences as being out in the external world. For example, they might see colors physically overlaid on letters on a page. Associator synesthetes, on the other hand, experience these concurrents internally, in their “mind’s eye,” as a strong mental association or feeling, without an external visual projection. This distinction highlights the diverse phenomenological landscape of synesthesia.

The study of synesthesia provides a unique window into typical brain function and development. The atypical linkages observed, such as those explained by cross-activation or failed synaptic pruning theories ¹, can illuminate how sensory regions normally specialize and communicate. The semantic vacuum hypothesis, for example, posits that synesthesia might be an exaggerated form of normal associative learning processes during critical developmental periods when children are first grappling with abstract concepts.¹¹ This suggests that synesthesia is not merely an anomaly but a valuable natural experiment revealing fundamental principles of brain organization, plasticity, and how abstract concepts are mapped to sensory experiences.

Common Forms and Their Characteristics

Synesthesia encompasses a wide array of sensory and cognitive pairings, with over 128 different types tested for by some researchers.¹⁰ Some forms are more prevalent and well-studied than others.

Grapheme-Color Synesthesia

This is one of the most common and extensively researched forms, where individuals involuntarily and consistently associate specific colors with letters or numbers (graphemes).⁷ For example, the letter “R” might always evoke a sensation of red.²⁵ These color associations are highly idiosyncratic, meaning they vary from one synesthete to another, but for any given individual, they remain remarkably stable over time—a key characteristic used in its identification.⁷

The factors influencing these grapheme-color pairings are multifaceted and can include the visual shape of the grapheme, its sound (phoneme), its position in a sequence (ordinality, e.g., ‘A’ being the first letter), its frequency of use, and even personal memories, such as childhood experiences with colored alphabet toys or refrigerator magnets.²⁶ The relative importance of these factors can differ across writing systems; for instance, in English, visual shape and ordinality are strong predictors, whereas, for Japanese Hiragana, the sound of the character is more influential.²⁶ Personal accounts, such as those from writer Patricia Lynne Duffy, illustrate how natural and matter-of-fact these color experiences are for synesthetes, often only realizing in adolescence or adulthood that not everyone perceives letters and numbers this way.³

The paradox of consistency and idiosyncrasy in grapheme-color synesthesia is particularly telling. While the specific color palette for graphemes is unique to each individual ¹¹, the associations themselves are incredibly stable for that person over many years, even decades.⁷ This points to a complex interplay between innate neurological predispositions that allow for these cross-modal connections and the experiential shaping of these connections through learning and personal history.²⁴ It challenges simplistic nature-versus-nurture dichotomies and underscores a deeply personalized construction of perceptual reality.

Chromesthesia (Sound-to-Color Synesthesia)

In chromesthesia, sounds—including music, voices, and everyday environmental noises—involuntarily evoke experiences of color, and sometimes shapes and movement.⁷ These visual experiences, often called “photisms,” are supplementary to the normal auditory perception; the sound is still heard, but it is accompanied by a visual counterpart.¹¹ Like other forms of synesthesia, the specific color associations are highly individual but consistent over time for a particular synesthete.²⁹

Several factors can influence the perceived colors in chromesthesia. Pitch is a common modulator, with many synesthetes (and even non-synesthetes in associative tasks) linking higher-pitched sounds with lighter or brighter colors and lower-pitched sounds with darker colors.²⁹ Timbre, volume, and the emotional inflection of a voice can also affect the synesthetic color experience.²⁹ Famous individuals, such as the composer Franz Liszt, have reported experiencing music in color.¹¹ Some chromesthetes describe these colors as being projected into the space in front of them, akin to fireworks, while others experience them more internally.¹⁰

Auditory-Tactile Synesthesia

A rarer form, auditory-tactile synesthesia involves sounds inducing tactile sensations, such as tingling, pressure, vibration, temperature changes, or even pain, on specific parts of the body.⁷ For instance, hearing a particular word might feel like a touch on the arm, or certain types of music, like heavy metal, might evoke a sensation of pins and needles.⁷ The prevalence is estimated to be less than 1% of the population.³³

The specific sound-touch pairings can vary greatly. Low-frequency sounds are sometimes associated with vibrations or pressure, while high-pitched sounds might be linked to tingling or tickling sensations.³³ Case studies of acquired auditory-tactile synesthesia, such as in patients with thalamic lesions, have provided valuable insights into the potential neural plasticity and cross-modal remapping that can occur in the brain.³⁴

Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia

Lexical-gustatory synesthesia is an exceptionally rare form where spoken or written words (lexemes), and sometimes even sounds or thoughts of words, trigger specific taste or smell sensations.⁷ These gustatory experiences are often complex, involving not just basic tastes (sweet, sour) but also textures and temperatures, akin to actual food.¹¹ An example might be the word “society” consistently tasting of fried onions for a particular individual.³⁰

The associations are highly consistent over many years, a key factor in their verification.³⁰ Research suggests these tastes are often linked to foods experienced in childhood.³⁷ The “MULTISENSE Test” has been developed as an automated online tool to help diagnose this specific type of synesthesia by testing the consistency of word-flavor pairings.³⁰

Other Notable Forms

Beyond these, many other forms of synesthesia exist. Spatial sequence synesthesia (also known as time-space synesthesia) involves sequences like numbers, months of the year, or days of the week being perceived as occupying specific locations in space, often arranged in shapes like circles or lines around the individual.¹ Mirror-touch synesthesia is a particularly intriguing form where observing someone else being touched leads the synesthete to feel a tactile sensation on the corresponding part of their own body.⁷ This form has been linked to higher empathy levels and may involve the mirror neuron system.¹¹

The Neurological and Genetic Tapestry of Synesthesia

The precise mechanisms underlying synesthesia are still a subject of active research, but several theories and empirical findings offer compelling explanations.

Neurological Basis

Current understanding points to differences in brain structure and function in synesthetes. Two primary theories dominate the discussion:

Cross-activation Theory: Proposed by V.S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard, this theory suggests that synesthesia arises from increased direct neural connections, or “cross-talk,” between brain regions that are typically segregated and specialized for different senses.²³ For example, in grapheme-color synesthesia, the area responsible for processing the shapes of letters and numbers (in the fusiform gyrus) is anatomically adjacent to the color-processing area V4. If there is an excess of neural wiring between these areas, stimulation of the grapheme region could directly co-activate the color region.⁷ This hyper-connectivity might be a result of incomplete synaptic pruning during early brain development, a process where redundant neural connections are normally eliminated.³
Disinhibited Feedback Theory: This theory posits that synesthesia results from a reduction in the normal amount of inhibition along feedback pathways that run from higher-order association areas of the brain (like the parietal lobe) back to primary sensory areas.²³ Information in the brain flows in multiple directions; if these feedback signals are not adequately suppressed, activity in one sensory pathway could trigger activity in another, leading to a synesthetic percept.

Neuroimaging studies using fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) have provided empirical support for these ideas. Synesthetes often show differences in both white matter (nerve fiber tracts) and gray matter (neuronal cell bodies) compared to non-synesthetes.¹³ For instance, projector grapheme-color synesthetes have been found to have increased connectivity near the fusiform gyrus.¹³ In chromesthesia, the left superior temporal sulcus, an area involved in integrating auditory and visual information, shows heightened activity.²⁹ Furthermore, the subjective nature of the experience (projector vs. associator) seems to have distinct neural correlates: “in-the-mind” (associator) experiences are linked to activity in memory-related structures like the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus, while “outside-world” (projector) experiences correlate with activity in primary sensory cortices (visual, auditory, motor) and frontal areas.¹³ The fact that brain imaging can demonstrate neural activity in corresponding sensory areas (e.g., V4 activation in grapheme-color synesthetes when viewing black-and-white letters ³⁹) validates the subjective reports of synesthetes and provides strong evidence against dismissing these experiences as mere imagination. This underscores that consciousness and perception are directly tied to neural activity, and variations in this activity lead to genuinely different qualitative experiences.

Genetic Factors

Synesthesia has a significant familial component. Approximately 40% of synesthetes report having a first-degree relative who also experiences some form of synesthesia, strongly suggesting a genetic predisposition.¹ However, the genetics are complex. Synesthesia is likely polygenetic, meaning multiple genes are involved, and it is heterogeneous, as the specific type of synesthesia can vary even within the same family.⁴⁰ This indicates that what is inherited might be a general susceptibility to developing synesthesia, rather than a direct blueprint for a particular form. Early suggestions that synesthesia might be X-linked due to a higher reported prevalence in females have been largely refuted by more recent studies using random sampling techniques, which show a more even distribution between genders.⁴⁰

Developmental Origins

The development of synesthesia is thought to be influenced by both innate factors and learning experiences:

Semantic Vacuum Hypothesis: This theory suggests that synesthesia may develop during childhood when children are intensely engaged in learning abstract concepts for the first time, such as letters, numbers, days of the week, or musical notes.¹¹ The synesthetic association (e.g., color) might serve as a cognitive scaffold to help differentiate and organize these new, abstract elements. This could explain why forms like grapheme-color and time-space synesthesia are relatively common. The specific associations are then shaped and solidified as the child learns more about the inducer domain.²⁴
Neonatal Synesthesia Theory: An alternative, or possibly complementary, idea is that all infants are born with a greater degree of interconnectedness between sensory brain regions.¹ In most individuals, these connections are pruned back during development as sensory pathways become more specialized. Synesthesia could result if this pruning process is incomplete, leaving some of these early cross-modal pathways intact.¹
Acquired Synesthesia: While most synesthesia is developmental, it can also be acquired later in life. This can occur as a result of brain damage from events like a stroke ¹, sensory loss (e.g., blindness or deafness leading to compensatory cross-modal activations) ⁴⁰, or, transiently, through the use of certain psychedelic drugs like LSD or psilocybin.¹ However, drug-induced synesthesia often differs from developmental forms in that it can be more dependent on emotional state and less automatic.¹

Living with Synesthesia: Impact on Cognition, Creativity, and Daily Life

For most synesthetes, their unique perceptual experiences are a neutral or even pleasant aspect of their lives, often going unnoticed as unusual until they learn that others do not share them.³ However, synesthesia can have notable impacts on various aspects of an individual’s life.

Cognitive Benefits

Research has uncovered several cognitive advantages associated with synesthesia:

Enhanced Memory: Synesthetes often exhibit superior memory, particularly for information related to their synesthetic concurrents. For example, grapheme-color synesthetes may find it easier to remember phone numbers, names, or dates because the associated colors act as mnemonic aids.⁴⁰ Some individuals with synesthesia, like Daniel Tammet (who experiences numbers with unique shapes, colors, and textures), demonstrate extraordinary memory capabilities.¹¹ Studies have shown that grapheme-color synesthetes tend to have higher ratings on verbal and vivid imagery cognitive style dimensions.⁴³
Improved Sensory Processing: Certain types of synesthesia are linked to heightened abilities in the concurrent sensory domain. Grapheme-color synesthetes, for instance, often show enhanced color discrimination abilities, being able to distinguish between very similar shades more accurately than non-synesthetes.⁴⁰ Mirror-touch synesthetes may have increased tactile acuity.⁴⁰ These findings suggest that the synesthetic experience itself might fine-tune the involved sensory systems.
Cognitive Anchors: Synesthetic experiences can serve as cognitive and perceptual anchors, aiding in the detection, processing, and retention of important stimuli.⁴⁰

The association of synesthesia with these cognitive enhancements raises intriguing questions about its evolutionary persistence. If these benefits are consistent and offer tangible advantages in learning, memory, or sensory processing, the genetic factors predisposing individuals to synesthesia might be positively selected for within the population.⁴⁰ This perspective shifts the view of synesthesia from a mere perceptual “quirk” to a potentially adaptive neurodivergent trait.

Creativity

A strong link has been observed between synesthesia and creativity. Individuals with synesthesia are found with a higher incidence among artists, musicians, and writers, and they tend to report spending more time engaged in creative activities.¹¹ Many famous creative minds, including author Vladimir Nabokov (grapheme-color), painter Wassily Kandinsky (sound-color and other forms), and musician David Hockney (sound-color), have reported synesthetic experiences that influenced their work.¹¹ The way synesthesia might fuel creativity is complex; while it provides a richer palette of sensory experiences, the direct link to processes like metaphor generation is still debated, as synesthetic connections are often arbitrary, whereas metaphors typically rely on non-arbitrary conceptual relationships.⁴⁰

Daily Life and Challenges

The vast majority of synesthetes report their experiences as neutral or pleasant, often considering them an integral and enriching part of their identity.³ Many are surprised to learn that their perceptual world is different from that of others.³

However, challenges can arise:

Sensory Overload: In environments with intense sensory stimuli, the additional synesthetic perceptions can become overwhelming or distracting. For example, a chromesthete might find a concert with loud music and flashing lights to be an overly intense barrage of colors.⁴¹
Incongruent Stimuli: Encountering stimuli that clash with their synesthetic perceptions can be jarring or uncomfortable. A grapheme-color synesthete might find it difficult to read text if letters are printed in colors that differ from their inherent synesthetic colors.²⁸
Social Misunderstanding: Sharing their experiences with individuals unfamiliar with synesthesia can sometimes lead to disbelief or misunderstanding, compelling some synesthetes to keep their perceptions private.⁴²

Identification, Awareness, and Current Research Frontiers

Identification

Synesthesia is not classified as a disorder in major diagnostic manuals like the DSM-5 or ICD, primarily because it generally does not impair daily functioning and is often perceived positively by those who experience it.⁴² However, criteria for identifying genuine synesthesia in research contexts have been established. Key characteristics, as outlined by researchers like Richard Cytowic, include experiences that are: involuntary and automatic, spatially extended (often perceived in a specific location), consistent over time, highly memorable, and often laden with affect (emotions).⁴²

The consistency of synesthetic associations over extended periods is a cornerstone of its verification. Test-retest procedures, where individuals are asked to describe their synesthetic pairings (e.g., colors for letters) on multiple occasions separated by months or even years, demonstrate remarkable stability in genuine synesthetes compared to non-synesthetes asked to invent associations.⁷ Various online tools, such as “The Synesthesia Battery” and specific grapheme-color consistency tests, are available for individuals to explore their potential synesthetic experiences.⁷

Awareness

Public and scientific awareness of synesthesia has grown considerably in recent decades, fueled by research and media attention.¹ However, it is still likely that many individuals with synesthesia are unaware that their sensory experiences are unique. Prevalence estimates suggest that at least 4% of the population experiences some form of synesthesia, with some common types like grapheme-color synesthesia being more widespread than rarer forms like lexical-gustatory synesthesia.¹ The contributions of public figures and artists who openly discuss their synesthesia also play a vital role in increasing broader understanding.¹¹

Research Frontiers

Synesthesia research is a vibrant and evolving field. Key areas of ongoing and future investigation include:

Neurogenetic Mechanisms: Unraveling the precise genetic underpinnings and diverse neural mechanisms responsible for the myriad forms of synesthesia.²⁴
Developmental Trajectories: Further exploring how synesthesia develops from childhood, the critical role of learning in shaping specific associations, and the validity of theories like neonatal synesthesia and the semantic vacuum hypothesis.²⁴
Cognitive and Perceptual Consequences: Systematically investigating the range of cognitive benefits (in memory, learning, perception) and creative enhancements associated with synesthesia, and their neural bases.⁴⁰ Recent breakthroughs include the finding that color synesthesia can improve detailed color perception while potentially impairing motion perception, suggesting trade-offs in sensory processing.⁴⁴
Subtype Differentiation: Achieving a clearer understanding of the phenomenological and neural distinctions between subtypes, such as projector versus associator synesthesia.¹⁰
Relationship with Other Conditions: Exploring the links and co-occurrences between synesthesia and other neurodevelopmental conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder.¹
Comprehensive Models: Developing more comprehensive models, for example, for grapheme-color associations that integrate factors like visual shape, sound, ordinality, and learning history.²⁶

Prominent researchers and institutions contributing to this field include Julia Simner (University of Sussex), the late V.S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard (who pioneered the cross-activation theory), Richard Cytowic (an early and influential modern researcher), David Eagleman, and Janina Neufeld’s team at the Karolinska Institutet, among many others.¹⁰

3. Beyond Synesthesia: Exploring Other Unique Sensory Worlds

While synesthesia represents a fascinating merging of senses, it is not the only way individuals can experience the world uniquely. Several other phenomena involve atypical sensory processing or responses, each with its own distinct characteristics and impact.

Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR): The Science of Tingles

Defining ASMR

Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a sensory phenomenon characterized by a pleasant, often described as electrostatic-like, tingling sensation.¹⁸ This sensation typically originates on the scalp and back of the neck, and can spread down the spine and to the limbs depending on its intensity.¹⁸ ASMR is consistently accompanied by feelings of profound relaxation, euphoria, calmness, and an overall elevation in mood.¹⁹

The triggers for ASMR are diverse but often share qualities of gentleness, repetition, and personal attention. Common auditory triggers include whispering, soft speaking, tapping, scratching, crinkling paper, and mouth sounds.¹⁴ Visual triggers often involve slow, deliberate hand movements, watching someone perform a task meticulously (like drawing or folding towels), or role-play scenarios simulating personal care, such as haircuts, make-up application, or medical examinations.¹⁹ Research suggests that low-pitched audio may be a particularly reliable trigger ¹⁹, and effective ASMR experiences are often induced by stimuli that are 1 to 5 minutes in length, perceived as realistic, and involve focused exploration of an object or task.¹⁹ The rise of ASMR is inextricably linked to online video platforms like YouTube, where a vast community of creators and consumers has emerged since the term was coined around 2010.¹⁴ However, the “social grooming hypothesis” suggests that ASMR may tap into ancient, evolutionarily conserved mechanisms related to comfort, bonding, and affiliative behaviors, similar to grooming rituals observed in primates.¹⁵ This implies ASMR could be a modern, technologically mediated way of fulfilling innate needs for gentle, attentive social connection, which may be particularly resonant in an era of increasing digital interaction and potential social isolation.⁵⁴

Neurological Basis

The precise neural mechanisms underlying ASMR are still under investigation, but research is rapidly advancing.¹⁹ Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have shown that ASMR experiences are associated with activation in brain regions linked to attention, social cognition (understanding others’ intentions and mental states), reward processing, and sensory integration.¹⁴ The anterior cingulate gyrus (involved in emotion and attention) and movement-related brain regions are notably implicated.⁵⁹

Several hypotheses attempt to explain the neural underpinnings:

Default Mode Network (DMN) Activation: ASMR may influence the DMN, a network of brain regions active during restful, introspective states. Activation of the DMN could explain ASMR’s capacity to induce meditative-like states and counteract stress.⁵⁴
Mirror Neuron System Involvement: The observation of soothing, repetitive tasks in ASMR videos might activate mirror neuron systems, which are involved in empathy and understanding others’ actions and intentions. This could foster feelings of comfort and connection.⁵⁴
Neurochemical Engagement: The euphoria and calmness associated with ASMR strongly suggest the involvement of neurotransmitters like endorphins (natural pain relievers), oxytocin (often called the “love hormone,” associated with social bonding and warmth), and dopamine (involved in reward and motivation, and stress reduction).¹⁵

Physiologically, ASMR is correlated with tangible changes. Studies have documented a significant decrease in heart rate (an average of 3.41 beats per minute) during ASMR experiences, indicative of relaxation.¹⁴ There is also evidence of increased skin conductance, which is a measure of physiological or emotional arousal ¹⁹, and changes in brain wave activity, specifically an increase in theta waves, which are also prominent during meditation and focused attention.¹⁵ This “paradoxical reaction” of simultaneous relaxation (slowed heart rate) and arousal (increased skin conductance, feelings of excitement) ¹⁵ distinguishes ASMR from simple relaxation and might be key to its unique appeal, possibly involving concurrent activation of the parasympathetic nervous system and certain reward pathways.

Impact and Potential Benefits

The subjective reports and physiological data converge on several potential benefits of ASMR:

Stress and Anxiety Reduction: This is one of the most commonly reported effects, with ASMR likened to meditation in its soothing capabilities.¹⁴
Mood Enhancement: Many users report temporary relief from symptoms of depression and a general uplift in mood.¹⁴
Improved Sleep: ASMR is widely used as a sleep aid, helping individuals to unwind and fall asleep more easily.¹⁴
Chronic Pain Relief: Some anecdotal evidence and survey data suggest that ASMR can provide temporary relief from chronic pain.¹⁹
Increased Focus and Flow State: The immersive nature of ASMR can help induce a “flow state” of deep concentration, potentially boosting productivity and creativity.⁵⁷
Feelings of Social Connection: The personal attention simulated in many ASMR videos can evoke feelings of being cared for and socially connected.⁶¹

Challenges and Limitations

Despite its benefits for many, ASMR is not a universal experience and has certain limitations:

Individual Variability: Not everyone experiences ASMR. Estimates suggest that around 20% of the population are responders ¹⁴, though some studies indicate up to 60% of ASMR video viewers report the sensation.⁶¹ Those who do respond often exhibit specific personality traits, such as higher Openness to Experience and Neuroticism, and lower Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Agreeableness.¹⁹ This suggests a predisposition that might guide personalized therapeutic approaches if ASMR is used clinically.
Aversive Reactions: For some individuals, ASMR triggers can be irritating, overstimulating, or even distressing, particularly for those with misophonia or heightened sensory sensitivities.¹⁵ This highlights a delicate balance in sensory processing where similar auditory and social cues can evoke vastly different emotional responses.
Tingle Immunity: Regular exposure to ASMR content can sometimes lead to desensitization, where the tingling response diminishes over time.⁷⁰
Commercialization and Ethics: The rapid growth and monetization of ASMR content raise ethical questions about authenticity, accessibility, and the commodification of relaxation and self-care.⁵⁴

Prevalence, Awareness, and Research Landscape

The term “ASMR” was coined in 2010 ¹⁴, and awareness has since exploded, primarily through online platforms. Prevalence is estimated to be around 20% of the general population.¹⁴

ASMR research, though relatively new, is expanding rapidly.¹⁴ Key figures include Giulia Poerio, Emma Barratt, Nick Davis, and Stephen D. Smith.¹⁶ Future research is focused on conducting long-term intervention studies, better understanding individual differences in ASMR response, refining neurobiological models, and more rigorously exploring its therapeutic potential.⁵⁹ Recent breakthroughs include the consistent linking of ASMR to specific personality profiles and measurable physiological changes like decreased heart rate.¹⁶

Misophonia: When Sounds Trigger Distress

Defining Misophonia

Misophonia, literally “hatred of sound,” is a disorder characterized by a significantly decreased tolerance to specific sounds, known as “trigger sounds”.⁶ Exposure to these triggers elicits intense and disproportionate negative emotional reactions, most commonly anger, rage, disgust, anxiety, and panic.⁵ These emotional responses are often accompanied by strong physiological reactions, such as muscle tension, increased heart rate, sweating, and a general fight-or-flight response.⁵

Trigger sounds are typically common, everyday noises, and are very often human-generated. The most frequently reported triggers include sounds related to eating (chewing, slurping, swallowing), breathing (sniffing, nasal sounds), and other repetitive actions like pen clicking, keyboard tapping, or finger tapping.⁵ For some individuals, visual stimuli associated with the trigger sounds (e.g., seeing someone chew) can also provoke a misophonic reaction; this is sometimes referred to as misokinesia (“hatred of movement”).²⁰ The reaction to triggers is involuntary and can be so overwhelming that individuals report a feeling of losing control.⁵ The core issue in misophonia appears to be an abnormal level of salience or importance attributed to these specific sounds, which then hyper-activates emotional and physiological defense systems.⁶ The involvement of the anterior insular cortex (AIC), a brain region critical for detecting salient environmental stimuli and processing interoceptive (internal bodily) signals, strongly supports this interpretation.⁷⁷

Neurological and Genetic Factors

Neurological Basis:

Neuroimaging studies have begun to illuminate the brain mechanisms involved in misophonia:

Anterior Insular Cortex (AIC) Hyperactivity: fMRI studies consistently show that trigger sounds elicit greatly exaggerated activity in the AIC in individuals with misophonia compared to controls.⁷⁷ The AIC is a core hub of the brain’s “salience network,” which determines which stimuli deserve attention and emotional response.
Abnormal Functional Connectivity: Misophonia is associated with atypical patterns of functional connectivity between the AIC and a network of other brain regions involved in emotion processing and regulation. These include the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), posteromedial cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala.⁷⁷ This suggests that not only is the AIC overreacting, but its communication with emotion-regulating areas is also disrupted.
Hyper-mirroring Hypothesis: Many misophonic triggers are sounds produced by human orofacial movements (e.g., chewing, breathing). Research has found increased resting-state functional connectivity between the auditory cortex and the orofacial motor cortex in individuals with misophonia.⁸⁷ This has led to the “hyper-mirroring” hypothesis, which suggests that the sounds of these actions lead to an excessive and aversive simulation or “mirroring” of those movements within the listener’s own motor system. The perceived intent or source of the sound might modulate the reaction, pointing to complex interactions between sensory processing, motor simulation, and social cognition. However, the existence of non-orofacial triggers (e.g., keyboard tapping) indicates that this model may not be a complete explanation for all cases of misophonia.⁹¹
Structural Differences: Some studies have reported structural brain differences, such as greater myelination (insulation of nerve fibers) within the vmPFC in individuals with misophonia.⁷⁷
Autonomic Nervous System: Exposure to trigger sounds leads to heightened sympathetic nervous system activity, manifesting as increased heart rate and galvanic skin response (sweating).⁷⁷

Genetic Factors:

There is emerging evidence for a genetic component to misophonia:

Misophonia appears to run in families, suggesting heritability.⁶
A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified a specific genetic locus (rs2937573, near the TENM2 gene, which is involved in brain development) as being strongly associated with the rage triggered by chewing sounds.⁹¹
Misophonia shows significant genetic overlap with several psychiatric disorders, particularly anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and major depressive disorder, as well as with personality traits like neuroticism and irritability.⁹² This suggests shared underlying genetic vulnerabilities.

Impact on Daily Life, Functioning, and Well-being

Misophonia can have a profoundly negative impact on an individual’s daily life and overall well-being:

Significant Distress and Impairment: The intense emotional and physiological reactions to common sounds cause considerable distress and can severely impair functioning in social, academic, and occupational settings.⁵
Avoidance Behaviors: To prevent exposure to trigger sounds, individuals with misophonia often engage in extensive avoidance behaviors. This can include avoiding family meals, refusing to eat with others, shunning public transportation, or withdrawing from social gatherings.⁵
Social and Relational Difficulties: The condition can strain relationships with family members, friends, and colleagues, leading to social isolation and feelings of being misunderstood.⁵ Verbal aggression towards the source of the trigger sound is common, and in rare cases, physical aggression can occur.⁵
Mental Health Comorbidities: Misophonia is frequently associated with a poorer quality of life and higher rates of comorbid mental health conditions, including anxiety disorders, depression, and obsessive-compulsive (OCD) traits or disorder.⁵ Difficulties with emotion regulation are also a key feature.⁸⁰
Coping Mechanisms: Common coping strategies include using earplugs or noise-canceling headphones, listening to white noise or music to mask triggers, physically leaving the triggering situation, or sometimes mimicking the trigger sound, which some report provides temporary relief.⁵

The discrepancy between the low level of public awareness of misophonia ⁸¹ and its potentially high prevalence and severe impact ⁸¹ is a significant concern. Many individuals, especially those whose symptoms began in childhood or adolescence ⁶, may suffer for years without understanding their condition or having a name for it. This lack of recognition can lead to feelings of isolation, self-blame, and delayed access to appropriate support or coping strategies. Increased public and professional awareness is therefore crucial for early identification, providing validation, reducing stigma, and facilitating access to help, particularly within educational and family environments.

Diagnosis, Awareness, and Therapeutic Approaches

Diagnosis/Identification:

Misophonia is not yet formally recognized as a distinct disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) [5 (DSM-IV), 78]. This lack of formal classification has historically hindered research and clinical recognition. However, the field is evolving, and expert consensus criteria for misophonia have been proposed by researchers like Schröder and colleagues (2013) and Jager and colleagues (2020).5 These criteria typically focus on:

The presence of specific trigger sounds (often human-made, oral/nasal).
An intense aversive emotional (e.g., anger, disgust) and physiological reaction to these sounds.
Recognition that the reaction is excessive or out of proportion.
Avoidance of misophonic situations or enduring them with intense distress.
Significant distress or impairment in daily functioning.
The symptoms are not better explained by another disorder.

Several assessment tools have been developed to aid in the identification and quantification of misophonia symptoms, including the Misophonia Assessment Interview (MAI) ⁵, the Misophonia Questionnaire (MQ) ¹⁹, the Amsterdam Misophonia Scale (A-MISO-S) ⁸³, the Duke-Vanderbilt Misophonia Screening Questionnaire (DVMSQ) ⁸⁵, and the Sound Sensitivity Symptoms Questionnaire version 2 (SSSQ2).⁹⁷ The ongoing development and validation of such tools are critical for standardizing research and clinical practice.

Awareness:

The term “misophonia” was coined in 2001 by audiologists Pawel and Margaret Jastreboff.86 While awareness has been steadily growing, particularly within online communities and among researchers, it remains relatively low in the general public.81 A US-based study found that only about 11.3% of adults recognized the term misophonia, and a UK study reported less than 14% awareness prior to their survey.81 Organizations like the International Misophonia Foundation 98 and the International Misophonia Research Network (IMRN) 90 are playing a vital role in disseminating information, supporting research, and fostering a community for those affected.

Therapeutic Approaches:

Currently, there is no definitive cure for misophonia. Treatment focuses on management strategies aimed at reducing the intensity of reactions and improving coping skills:

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT techniques are increasingly being adapted for misophonia. These may include cognitive restructuring (challenging negative thoughts and beliefs about trigger sounds and reactions), exposure therapy (gradual, controlled exposure to triggers to reduce reactivity), and developing alternative coping behaviors.⁸⁷
Sound Therapies: The use of sound-generating devices to provide neutral or pleasant background noise (e.g., white noise, nature sounds) can help mask trigger sounds or reduce their salience. Earplugs or noise-canceling headphones are commonly used for immediate relief in triggering environments.⁸⁰
Relaxation and Mindfulness Techniques: Practices such as deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and mindfulness meditation can help individuals manage the physiological arousal and emotional distress associated with trigger exposure.⁸⁰
Emotion Regulation Skills Training: Given that misophonia involves intense emotional reactions and difficulties with emotional control, interventions that specifically target emotion regulation skills may be beneficial.⁸⁰
Addressing Comorbid Conditions: Treating co-occurring conditions like anxiety, depression, or OCD can often help improve overall functioning and may alleviate some aspects of misophonia-related distress.⁸⁰
Neurostimulation: Emerging research is exploring the potential of neurostimulation techniques (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation – TMS) to target the specific brain circuits implicated in misophonia, though this is still in experimental stages.⁹¹

The evolving diagnostic landscape, with emerging consensus definitions and validated tools, is paving the way for more systematic research and the development of evidence-based treatments. Formal recognition in diagnostic manuals would further accelerate this progress, improving access to care and reducing the burden on those living with this challenging condition.

Research Landscape

The field of misophonia research is dynamic, with significant contributions from various disciplines. Key researchers and institutions include Pawel and Margaret Jastreboff, who first defined the condition ⁸⁴; Sukhbinder Kumar at Newcastle University, known for neuroimaging work on the AIC and hyper-mirroring ⁷⁷; M. Zachary Rosenthal and colleagues at Duke University’s Center for Misophonia and Emotion Regulation (CMER), who have worked on assessment and psychiatric correlates ⁵; and Jennifer Brout of the International Misophonia Research Network (IMRN).⁹⁰ Research groups like the one at the University of Illinois led by Fatima Husain and Howard Berenbaum are conducting large-scale international studies.¹⁰⁰

Recent breakthroughs include the aforementioned GWAS identifying genetic links ⁹¹, detailed fMRI studies elucidating brain activity patterns in response to triggers ⁷⁷, and the development and validation of new screening and diagnostic questionnaires.⁸⁵

Future research directions are aimed at:

Achieving a universally accepted diagnostic definition and criteria.
Further elucidating the specific neural pathways involved, including the role of non-orofacial triggers and the interplay between auditory, motor, and emotional systems.
Conducting cross-cultural studies to understand the prevalence and expression of misophonia globally.
Investigating the developmental trajectory of misophonia from childhood through adulthood.
Developing and rigorously testing targeted, evidence-based interventions, including psychotherapies and potentially neurostimulation techniques.
Exploring the role of personal meaning, appraisal of sounds, and contextual factors in modulating misophonic responses.⁸⁴

Aphantasia: The Mind’s Eye Blindness

Defining Aphantasia

Aphantasia is characterized by the inability to voluntarily form mental images, or “see” with the mind’s eye.² Individuals with aphantasia typically report experiencing a “blank” or darkness when they try to visualize something. This phenomenon exists on a spectrum: at one end is total aphantasia, where no mental images are ever consciously experienced (often corresponding to the lowest scores on visualization questionnaires like the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, or VVIQ, e.g., a score of 16).² Further along the spectrum is hypophantasia, where individuals experience only dim, vague, or fleeting mental imagery (typically a VVIQ score of 32 or less).²

It is important to note that aphantasia is generally not considered a disorder or a disability but rather a neurological characteristic or a natural variation in human thinking and imagination.² Many individuals with congenital aphantasia (present from birth) live much of their lives unaware that their internal experience is different from others, often assuming that phrases like “picture this” are metaphorical.² This “discovery” of aphantasia is often a social and scientific phenomenon in itself, highlighting how subjective cognitive variations can remain hidden until named and validated.

While voluntary visual imagery is absent or impaired, some individuals with aphantasia may still experience involuntary visual “flashes,” or, paradoxically, report having visual dreams.² A small percentage (around 15%) report being able to visualize if their eyes are open.² Furthermore, the lack of imagery can extend beyond the visual domain to other senses, such as auditory (inability to “hear” music in one’s head), olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), or tactile imagery.⁴ This has led to proposals for broader terms like “dysikonesia” to describe a more general multi-sensory imagery deficit.⁴ The common historical belief, echoed by philosophers like Aristotle, that mental imagery is integral to all thinking and memory, is directly challenged by the existence of aphantasia. The fact that individuals with aphantasia demonstrate complex cognition, functional memory (albeit with different characteristics), and creativity without voluntary visual imagery forces a re-evaluation of these fundamental cognitive models.² It suggests that the human brain employs diverse strategies for information processing and problem-solving, highlighting its adaptability and the existence of multiple pathways to similar functional outcomes.

Neurological Correlates

Research into the neural basis of aphantasia is ongoing, but several key findings have emerged:

Reduced Activity in Visual and Memory Regions: During attempts at voluntary visualization or when retrieving autobiographical memories, individuals with aphantasia often show reduced activation in the visual cortex (specifically the occipital lobe, which processes visual information) and the hippocampus (a brain structure crucial for memory formation and retrieval).¹⁰²
Altered Functional Connectivity: Studies have revealed differences in how brain regions communicate in aphantasia:

There is often reduced functional connectivity between frontoparietal networks (involved in attention, cognitive control, and working memory) and occipitotemporal regions (involved in visual processing).¹¹⁰
During autobiographical memory recall, aphantasics can exhibit strong negative connectivity, or even an absence of connectivity, between the hippocampus and the visual-perceptual cortex. In contrast, typical imagers might show a different pattern of interaction.¹¹⁶ Disruptions in the connectivity of the ‘fusiform imagery node’ (FIN), an area critical for visual processing, have also been implicated.¹²¹
Compensatory Activation Patterns: Interestingly, some studies have found that individuals with aphantasia may show increased activation in visual-perceptual regions during tasks like autobiographical memory retrieval.¹¹⁶ This could represent a compensatory strategy, or it might reflect a different mode of processing where the visual system is engaged differently, perhaps in a way that paradoxically inhibits the conscious experience of imagery or interferes with hippocampal involvement. Some research also suggests that unconscious visual representations may still be formed ¹²⁰, pointing to a dissociation between neural processing and subjective awareness.

These findings suggest that aphantasia is not simply about a “dark” visual cortex, but rather involves complex alterations in the dynamic interplay between brain networks responsible for vision, memory, attention, and conscious awareness.

Living Without Mental Imagery: Impact on memory, learning, and creativity

Memory:

The most consistently reported impact of aphantasia is on autobiographical memory—the ability to recall personal past events. Individuals with aphantasia typically report:

Less vivid and detailed memories of their personal past. They can often recall facts about events (semantic memory) but struggle to “re-live” them from a first-person perspective with rich sensory details.²
Difficulty recalling faces, even of familiar people, from memory.¹⁰² They may rely on other cues like voice, mannerisms, or context for recognition.¹⁰²
Challenges in remembering specific locations or navigating using mental maps, often relying more on verbal directions or logical cues.¹⁰²
Memory strategies that are predominantly verbal, logical, or fact-based, rather than relying on visual mnemonics.¹⁰²

Learning and Cognition:

Despite the lack of visual imagery, many individuals with aphantasia excel in various cognitive domains:

They may show a preference or aptitude for fields like science, mathematics, engineering, and computer programming, which can rely more on abstract, logical, or rule-based thinking.²
Learning strategies often involve verbal repetition, meticulous note-taking, focusing on conceptual understanding, and recognizing patterns rather than visualizing information.¹⁰²
Spatial imagery, which involves mentally manipulating objects or understanding spatial relationships (e.g., how gears fit together, or navigating a route based on turns), can be surprisingly intact and even strong in some individuals with aphantasia, even if they cannot “see” the objects visually in their mind.¹¹³ This suggests a dissociation between visual-object imagery and spatial imagery.

Creativity:

Aphantasia does not preclude creativity. Many artists, writers, designers, and innovators have aphantasia. Notable examples include Ed Catmull, the co-founder of Pixar Animation Studios, and Glen Keane, the acclaimed animator behind characters like Ariel from “The Little Mermaid”.115 Their creative processes may rely less on direct mental visualization and more on conceptual development, iteration, external references, rule-based systems, or focusing on the emotional or narrative aspects of their work.2 The existence of highly creative aphantasics demonstrates the brain’s remarkable plasticity and its ability to find alternative pathways to achieve complex cognitive and artistic outcomes.

Emotional Experience:

The lack of visual recall for past events can influence emotional experiences:

Some individuals with aphantasia report that emotions tied to memories might feel different, perhaps less intensely relived without the accompanying visual replay.¹⁰²
A potential benefit is that aphantasia may offer some protection against the visual aspects of trauma, such as vivid, intrusive flashbacks often seen in PTSD.¹⁰²
The grieving process might be experienced differently if one cannot visually recall the face or presence of a lost loved one.¹⁰²

Daily Life:

Many individuals with congenital aphantasia adapt so well that they are unaware their experience is atypical until adulthood.2 They develop various compensatory strategies, often unconsciously, to navigate tasks that others might approach visually.2

Identification, Awareness, and Ongoing Research

Identification:

Aphantasia is primarily identified through self-report, most commonly using the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) or its variants.² A score of 32 or less on the VVIQ (which typically has a maximum score of 80) is often used as a general cutoff for low imagery/aphantasia, with a score of 16 (the minimum) indicating total aphantasia.²
Researchers are also developing and using more objective behavioral measures, such as binocular rivalry paradigms (where mental imagery can bias perception of ambiguous stimuli) ¹¹⁶, drawing tasks to quantify the content and detail of visual memories ¹²⁷, and physiological responses like skin conductance or pupil dilation to imagined emotional or bright stimuli.¹²⁰
Aphantasia is not listed as a disorder in the DSM or ICD; it is considered a variation of human experience.²

Awareness:

The term “aphantasia” was coined in 2015 by Professor Adam Zeman and his team.¹⁰³ Since then, public and scientific awareness has grown dramatically, largely driven by media coverage and the formation of online communities, such as the Aphantasia Network, founded by Tom Ebeyer.¹⁰⁶ These platforms have been crucial for individuals to find validation, share experiences, and participate in research.
Prevalence estimates for aphantasia (no or very low visual imagery) range from approximately 1% to 4% of the population.²

Research Landscape:

The study of aphantasia is a rapidly expanding field.

Key Researchers and Institutions: Professor Adam Zeman (University of Exeter) is a leading figure.⁵⁰ Professor Joel Pearson (University of New South Wales, Sydney) has conducted significant research on the objective measures and neural basis of imagery and aphantasia.⁵⁰ The Aphantasia Research Project Bonn (led by researchers like Merlin Monzel and Cornelia McCormick) is making important contributions, particularly regarding memory and neural connectivity.¹¹⁶ The Aphantasia Network actively collaborates with research initiatives.¹¹³ Other institutions, like the University of Plymouth, also have dedicated research groups.¹³¹
Recent Breakthroughs: Significant recent progress includes:

Linking aphantasia to altered functional connectivity between the hippocampus and occipital (visual) cortex, particularly impacting autobiographical memory detail.¹¹⁶
Identifying that aphantasia often involves diminished imagery across multiple sensory modalities, not just vision.⁴
Exploring the variable association with autism spectrum traits.²
Demonstrating that while conscious imagery is absent, some level of unconscious visual representation might still occur in the brain.¹²⁰
Future Directions: The field is moving towards:

Refining the definition of aphantasia to encompass its multi-sensory aspects and spectrum nature.
Developing more robust and objective diagnostic tools beyond the VVIQ.¹²⁵
Further delineating potential subtypes of aphantasia.
Achieving a more comprehensive understanding of its precise neural underpinnings.
Investigating its impact on learning styles, education, and occupational choices.¹⁰⁵
Exploring the full range of its cognitive, emotional, and social implications.¹⁰⁴
Understanding if, and how, interventions could enhance imagery for those who desire it, though many aphantasics do not perceive their state as a deficit needing correction.

The spectrum nature of aphantasia and its potential for multi-sensory involvement are crucial considerations. It’s not just a binary absence of visual imagery but a dimensional trait. This suggests underlying neural mechanisms might affect a more general capacity for sensory simulation. Future diagnostic and research approaches will need to increasingly account for this broader, multi-modal, and dimensional perspective.

Hyperphantasia: An Exceptionally Vivid Inner World

Defining Hyperphantasia

Hyperphantasia stands at the opposite end of the mental imagery spectrum from aphantasia. It is characterized by the experience of extremely vivid, intense, and often photorealistic mental imagery.²¹ Individuals with hyperphantasia can conjure images in their “mind’s eye” that are described as being “as vivid as real seeing”.²² This heightened imaginative capability can extend across all five senses, allowing for rich internal experiences of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations.²²

People with hyperphantasia can often visualize text with great clarity, easily imagine characters and scenery from books, and recall past events with a wealth of sensory detail.²¹ Their internal mental world can be extraordinarily immersive. This phenomenon is not merely about having a “good imagination” in the colloquial sense; it refers to a qualitatively different intensity and fidelity of sensory mental imagery. Hyperphantasia, much like aphantasia, is considered a natural variation in cognitive ability rather than a disorder.

Neurological Basis

The neural underpinnings of hyperphantasia are thought to involve a widespread network including prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and visual brain areas—regions also active during typical mental imagery, but likely functioning with different characteristics in hyperphantasics.²² Specific findings related to hyperphantasia include:

Early Visual Cortex and Frontal Cortex Dynamics: Research suggests a complex relationship with the early visual cortex (V1, V2). While some findings point to a smaller surface area of the early visual cortex being associated with stronger imagery (an inverse relationship) ²², this is often coupled with a larger surface area of the frontal cortex.²² There appears to be an anatomical trade-off between primary sensory cortices and frontal areas in cortical organization.²² Lower resting activity and excitability levels within the primary visual cortex have also been linked to stronger mental imagery.²²
Enhanced Prefrontal-Visual Connectivity: Functional MRI studies have demonstrated that individuals with hyperphantasia exhibit significantly stronger functional connectivity between their prefrontal cortices (specifically Brodmann areas 9, 10, and 11, which are involved in higher-level cognitive functions like working memory and planning) and their visual cortex, compared to individuals with aphantasia.²² This robust “imagery network” communication is thought to be a key factor contributing to the vividness of their mental experiences.

These findings suggest that hyperphantasia is associated with a particular balance of activity and connectivity within and between sensory processing regions and higher-order cognitive control networks, allowing for the generation of exceptionally rich and detailed mental simulations.

The Double-Edged Sword: Benefits and Challenges

Living with hyperphantasia can be a profound experience, offering unique advantages but also presenting potential challenges. It appears to magnify both the benefits and potential risks associated with vivid mental imagery in the general population, highlighting a kind of dose-dependent effect of imagery vividness.

Benefits:

Enhanced Memory: Hyperphantasics often report exceptionally detailed and sensory-rich episodic and autobiographical memories. They can engage in vivid “mental time travel,” recalling past events and imagining future scenarios with remarkable clarity and fluency.²² This can also contribute to rapid and precise decision-making in situations requiring quick assessment.²²
Increased Creativity: There is a strong positive correlation between hyperphantasia and creativity. Individuals with this trait are more likely to pursue and excel in creative professions such as art, design, writing, and entertainment.²² They can mentally visualize complex designs, characters, and narratives with ease, sometimes “seeing” their creations fully formed in their mind’s eye.²²
Personality Trait of Openness: Hyperphantasia is associated with higher scores on “Openness to Experience” in the Big Five personality model. This suggests a greater inclination towards new ideas, broad interests, an active imagination, and a tendency to experience emotions (both positive and negative) more keenly.²²
Enhanced Problem-Solving and Conceptualization: The ability to vividly simulate scenarios and manipulate complex information mentally can aid in problem-solving and developing novel ideas.¹³⁴
Immersive Experiences: Reading, listening to music, or engaging with stories can become deeply immersive, almost cinematic, experiences.²¹ The “reality” of these imagined worlds can be so potent that it challenges the clear distinction often made between internal mental events and external sensory input.

Challenges:

Potential Link to Mood Disorders: The same vivid imagery that fuels creativity can also act as an “emotional amplifier,” potentially exacerbating symptoms of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder. Ruminating thoughts can become intensely visual and distressing.²² Vivid “flash-forwards” to negative or harmful events, including suicidal acts, have been noted as a concern.²²
Increased Risk for PTSD: Because vivid mental imagery plays a key role in the formation and persistence of intrusive memories, individuals with hyperphantasia may be at a substantially higher risk of developing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) following traumatic experiences.²²
Aggravation of Certain Psychotic Disorders: Conditions like schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease (which can involve visual hallucinations) might be aggravated by hyperphantasia, as high levels of imagery vividness can predict the severity of hallucinations.²² Some research even posits hyperphantasia as a potential “trait maker” for schizophrenia, given shared associations with a smaller primary visual cortex.²²
Difficulty Distinguishing Fantasy from Reality / Overwhelm: The intensity of mental imagery can sometimes make it difficult to distinguish between imagined scenarios and reality. This can lead to incessant daydreaming, difficulty concentrating on external tasks, or feeling overwhelmed by the sheer volume and intensity of internal mental content.¹³³ Individuals might need to consciously manage their exposure to distressing external stimuli (like horror movies or negative news) to avoid triggering overwhelming internal imagery.¹³⁷ Nightmares can also be particularly horrifying and vivid.¹⁴¹ This highlights a potential trade-off where an extremely rich inner world might sometimes come at the cost of engagement with the external world, or require conscious strategies to maintain daily functioning.
Association with Synesthesia: Studies have reported a higher incidence of synesthesia among individuals with hyperphantasia.²² This co-occurrence suggests there might be shared neurological or genetic predispositions that lead to both highly vivid imagery and the tendency for senses to blend, possibly related to increased neural connectivity or excitability in sensory processing regions.

Identification, Awareness, and Research Directions

Identification:

Hyperphantasia is primarily identified through self-report questionnaires that assess the vividness of mental imagery. The Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) is commonly used, with very high scores (e.g., 75-80 out of 80) being indicative of hyperphantasia.²²
Newer assessment tools, like the Imagery Extremes Checklist, are being developed to provide more nuanced measures, particularly for the extreme ends of the imagery spectrum.¹⁴³
Like aphantasia, hyperphantasia is not formally classified as a disorder in the DSM or ICD; it is viewed as a natural variation in human cognitive ability.¹⁰⁵

Awareness:

The term hyperphantasia is relatively recent and has gained prominence alongside the increasing research and public interest in aphantasia.¹³⁹ Awareness is growing, facilitated by the work of researchers like Adam Zeman and through online communities where individuals can share their experiences.¹⁴²
Prevalence estimates for hyperphantasia typically range from around 3% to 6% of the population, making it more common than extreme aphantasia.²²

Research Landscape:

Key Researchers and Institutions: Professor Adam Zeman (University of Exeter) and his collaborators have been central in researching and popularizing the concept of hyperphantasia alongside aphantasia.²² Dr. Reshanne Reeder is also involved in research on imagery extremes.¹⁴⁰ Many research groups studying the spectrum of mental imagery now include hyperphantasia in their investigations.¹⁴⁷
Recent Breakthroughs: Significant findings include the identification of neurobiological correlates, such as stronger prefrontal-visual network connectivity ²²; links to specific personality traits like Openness to Experience ²²; and documented enhancements in autobiographical memory and creative tendencies.²²
Future Directions: Research is likely to focus on:

Further elucidating the precise neural and potential genetic basis of hyperphantasia.
Exploring in greater detail the relationship between hyperphantasia, creativity, and different types of memory (e.g., eidetic memory).
Understanding the mechanisms that mediate both the benefits and the potential negative impacts on mental health (e.g., mood disorders, PTSD).
Developing more objective measures to assess hyperphantasia beyond self-report questionnaires.
Investigating potential subtypes of hyperphantasia and its manifestations across multiple sensory modalities.¹²¹

4. Connecting the Dots: Commonalities, Differences, and Co-occurrences

The human brain exhibits a remarkable range of perceptual and cognitive styles. Synesthesia, ASMR, misophonia, aphantasia, and hyperphantasia, while distinct, offer interconnected insights into this diversity. Understanding their relationships, overlaps, and divergences can provide a more holistic view of how sensory information is processed and experienced. These phenomena can be conceptualized along a continuum of sensory gating and integration. For example, aphantasia might represent highly stringent gating of internal visual information from conscious awareness, whereas hyperphantasia could signify very permeable gating. Synesthesia demonstrates atypical pathways of sensory integration. Misophonia reflects an over-reactive negative response to specific, gated stimuli, while ASMR shows a positive, specific response to different types of gated stimuli. Exploring the neural mechanisms of sensory gating (e.g., thalamic functions, cortical inhibition/excitation balance) and cross-modal integration could thus provide a unifying framework for these seemingly disparate experiences.

Comparing and Contrasting These Unique Sensory Experiences

A comparative overview helps to delineate these phenomena:

Feature	Synesthesia	Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR)	Misophonia	Aphantasia	Hyperphantasia
Brief Definition	Involuntary joining of senses or cognitive pathways ¹¹	Pleasurable tingling response to specific auditory/visual triggers ¹⁸	Intense negative emotional/physiological reaction to specific sounds ⁵	Absence or marked reduction of voluntary mental imagery ²	Exceptionally vivid and realistic voluntary mental imagery ²¹
Primary Modality(ies)	Varies (e.g., grapheme-color, sound-color, sound-touch, word-taste) ¹⁰	Auditory/Visual triggers leading to tactile-like/emotional response ¹⁹	Primarily Auditory (often human-made sounds), can have visual triggers ⁵	Primarily Visual imagery (can be multi-sensory, “dysikonesia”) ²	Primarily Visual imagery (can be multi-sensory) ²²
Nature of Experience	Additional, automatic perception (e.g., color with letter) ¹⁷	Pleasurable tingling, relaxation, euphoria ¹⁹	Aversive: anger, disgust, anxiety, panic ²⁰	“Blank” mind’s eye, dim/vague or no internal images ²	Photorealistic, immersive, “as vivid as real seeing” ²²
Common Inducers/Triggers	Graphemes, sounds, words, time units, personalities ¹⁰	Whispers, tapping, soft sounds, slow movements, personal attention ¹⁹	Chewing, breathing, sniffing, keyboard tapping, repetitive noises ⁵	Voluntary attempt to visualize or recall visual information ²	Voluntary attempt to visualize or recall visual information ²²
Estimated Prevalence	~4% or higher ¹⁰	~20% experience response ¹⁴	~15-20% significant reactions; up to 49% some sensitivity ⁸¹	~1-4% (aphantasia); up to 10-15% (low/dim imagery) ¹⁰⁴	~3-6% ¹³⁰
Key Neurological Correlates (Simplified)	Cross-activation/disinhibition between sensory areas (e.g., V4) ²³	DMN activity, reward pathways (dopamine, oxytocin), mirror neurons? ¹⁵	AIC hyperactivity, altered salience network, hyper-mirroring? ⁷⁷	Reduced visual cortex/hippocampal activity & connectivity ¹¹⁶	Stronger prefrontal-visual connectivity, altered visual/frontal cortex size ²²
Typical Impact	Altered perception, potential cognitive/creative benefits ⁴⁰	Relaxation, mood lift, sleep aid, stress reduction ¹⁹	Distress, avoidance, functional impairment, strained relationships ⁵	Affects autobiographical memory/imagination, alternative cognitive strategies ²	Enhanced creativity/memory, potential for overwhelm/anxiety ²²
DSM/ICD Status	Not listed (generally not impairing) ⁴²	Not listed	Not listed (but consensus criteria proposed, can be impairing) ⁵	Not listed (considered a variation) ²	Not listed (considered a variation) ¹⁰⁵

Synesthesia vs. ASMR: Both can involve cross-modal experiences (ASMR triggers can be auditory/visual leading to tactile-like tingles) and often emerge in childhood with consistent individual responses.⁵³ However, synesthesia is a direct, automatic linking of distinct sensory or cognitive pathways (e.g., a letter is a color), while ASMR is a specific tingling and relaxation response to particular types of stimuli, often those with social or attentive cues, rather than a direct sensory translation.¹⁷ Neurologically, synesthesia is associated with cross-activation or disinhibition between specific sensory brain areas ²³, whereas ASMR seems to involve reward pathways, the default mode network, and potentially mirror neuron systems.¹⁹

ASMR vs. Misophonia: These two phenomena share triggers, as both are often elicited by specific, frequently human-generated, sounds and can involve strong physiological and emotional responses.⁶⁸ The crucial difference lies in the valence of the emotional response: ASMR is typically pleasant and relaxing, associated with parasympathetic nervous system activation ¹⁹, while misophonia is characterized by intensely aversive emotions like anger and disgust, linked to sympathetic nervous system (fight-or-flight) activation.²⁰ Indeed, some common ASMR triggers (e.g., eating sounds, whispering) can be potent misophonia triggers for others.¹⁹

Aphantasia vs. Hyperphantasia: These are direct opposites on the spectrum of mental imagery vividness.²² Aphantasia involves a lack of, or very dim, voluntary mental imagery, while hyperphantasia is characterized by extremely vivid, almost perceptually real, mental imagery. Cognitively, aphantasia often leads to more fact-based memory recall and challenges with detailed autobiographical memory, with individuals developing alternative creative and problem-solving strategies.² Hyperphantasia is linked to rich autobiographical memory and heightened creativity, but can also bring challenges such as overwhelming imagery or difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality.²² Neurologically, they show contrasting patterns in visual cortex size/activity and the strength of connectivity between prefrontal and visual areas.²²

Synesthesia vs. Aphantasia/Hyperphantasia: Synesthesia is about experiencing additional or concurrent sensory perceptions linked to a stimulus (e.g., sound also has color). Aphantasia and hyperphantasia, in contrast, concern the vividness (or lack thereof) of internally generated mental imagery. Interestingly, synesthesia has generally been associated with higher-than-average mental imagery, aligning it more with hyperphantasia.²² However, research has shown that synesthesia can indeed occur in individuals with aphantasia, though it tends to be the ‘associator’ type (experienced in the mind’s eye) rather than the ‘projector’ type (perceived externally).⁵⁰ This finding challenges theories that require strong visual imagery as a prerequisite for all forms of synesthesia.

The heightened sensitivity or unusual sensory connections inherent in these phenomena can be a “double-edged sword.” They can be beneficial, as seen in the potential cognitive and creative advantages of synesthesia ⁴⁰ or the relaxation induced by ASMR.⁵⁷ Conversely, they can be detrimental, such as the distress caused by misophonia ⁶ or the potential for overwhelm and anxiety in hyperphantasia.²² Even aphantasia, while a lack of visual imagery, might offer an unexpected benefit, such as some protection from visually-based trauma.¹⁰² This illustrates that “more” or “different” sensory processing is not inherently positive or negative; its impact is contingent on the nature of the experience, individual coping mechanisms, and the environmental context, reinforcing the idea that neurodiversity encompasses both unique strengths and specific challenges.

The Concept of Neurodiversity and Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS)

Many of these unique sensory experiences, particularly synesthesia, aphantasia, hyperphantasia, and ASMR sensitivity, align well with the concept of neurodiversity. This framework views such variations in brain function and sensory processing as natural human differences rather than inherent deficits or disorders.¹

Related to this is the trait of Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS), found in roughly 15-30% of the population, characterized by a deeper processing of sensory information and a heightened awareness of subtleties in the environment.¹⁵⁰ Individuals high in SPS (often called Highly Sensitive Persons or HSPs) may exhibit greater activation in brain regions associated with awareness, empathy, and emotional processing.¹⁵⁰ There are potential overlaps to consider:

Misophonia clearly involves an extreme (negative) sensitivity to specific sounds.
ASMR experiencers often score higher on Openness to Experience, a trait that has some conceptual links with SPS, and they are responsive to subtle audiovisual cues.¹⁹
Hyperphantasics report experiencing emotions more keenly and have vivid sensory imaginations, which could align with aspects of SPS.²²
Conversely, individuals with aphantasia have reported lower general sensory sensitivity and experience less visual discomfort in pattern glare tasks, suggesting a different relationship with sensory input.⁴

SPS itself is not a disorder but a trait that comes with both strengths (e.g., heightened empathy, creativity, depth of processing) and challenges (e.g., proneness to overstimulation, increased risk for anxiety if in unsupportive environments).¹⁵⁰

Co-occurrence: Links Between These Phenomena

Research is increasingly exploring the co-occurrence of these unique sensory experiences, suggesting potential shared underlying mechanisms or predispositions:

Synesthesia and ASMR: There is a notable co-occurrence. Studies indicate that over half of synesthetes may also experience ASMR, and individuals who experience ASMR are up to four times more likely to have synesthesia than non-responders.⁶⁶ This strong association suggests shared mechanisms, possibly related to general cross-modal processing tendencies or heightened sensory awareness.⁶⁶
Synesthesia and Misophonia: Some researchers have suggested a connection, theorizing that misophonia could involve a pathological distortion of connections between limbic (emotional) structures and the auditory cortex, effectively creating a form of negative sound-emotion synesthesia.⁸⁶ Both conditions can involve idiosyncratic triggers leading to automatic responses.
ASMR and Misophonia: This relationship is complex. Individuals who experience ASMR have been found to report elevated levels of misophonia symptoms.¹⁹ Some of the same types of sounds that trigger ASMR in one person can be potent misophonia triggers for another. This points to an underlying sensitivity to specific sound patterns, but with divergent emotional and physiological outcomes.
Aphantasia and Synesthesia: As noted earlier, aphantasia does not preclude synesthesia. Individuals with aphantasia can have objectively diagnosed synesthesia, typically of the ‘associator’ type.⁵⁰ This indicates that vivid conscious visual imagery is not a universal requirement for synesthetic experiences.
Hyperphantasia and Synesthesia: A higher rate of synesthesia is reported among individuals with hyperphantasia.²² The capacity for extremely vivid mental imagery might facilitate or share underlying neural mechanisms (perhaps related to increased neural connectivity or excitability in sensory areas) with the cross-modal associations characteristic of synesthesia.
Aphantasia and Autism Traits: Some studies have found that aphantasia is variably associated with higher scores on measures of autism spectrum traits.² Both conditions involve differences in sensory processing and imagination, though the nature of this link requires further research.
Aphantasia and Lower Sensory Sensitivity: Contrary to conditions involving hypersensitivity, individuals with aphantasia tend to report lower overall sensory sensitivity and experience less visual discomfort in response to certain stimuli like pattern glare.⁴

The co-occurrence of these conditions and the familial tendencies observed in some (like synesthesia, aphantasia, and hyperphantasia ⁴⁰) suggest the possibility of shared genetic predispositions or common deviations in neurodevelopmental pathways. These shared factors might lead to a variety of atypical sensory and cognitive processing styles. Consequently, research into one of these phenomena may offer valuable insights into the others, contributing to a broader understanding of how neurodiversity arises and manifests. The definition and differentiation of these experiences heavily rely on subjective reports, underscoring the ongoing challenge and critical importance of integrating first-person accounts with third-person scientific investigation. Developing robust methodologies for capturing and validating subjective experience is paramount for advancing the field.

5. Personal Perspectives: Voices from the Sensory Frontier

Understanding these unique sensory experiences is enriched immeasurably by listening to the voices of those who live them. Personal accounts, whether from public figures, participants in research, or individuals sharing within communities, provide invaluable context and depth to the scientific findings.

Grapheme-Color Synesthesia: Many grapheme-color synesthetes describe their experience as an inherent property of letters and numbers. Writer Patricia Lynne Duffy recalls realizing as a child that she could “turn a yellow letter into an orange letter just by adding a line” (referring to P and R), assuming this was universal.²⁷ Physicist Richard Feynman famously spoke of seeing equations in color, with “light-tan j’s, slightly violet-bluish n’s, and dark brown x’s flying around”.³ These accounts emphasize the automatic, consistent, and often surprising nature of the experience upon discovering its uniqueness.³ The consistency is a hallmark; if ‘D’ is a particular shade of green, it remains so, though different green letters like ‘J’ and ‘P’ will have their own distinct shades.²⁸

Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia: James Wannerton, President of the UK Synaesthesia Association, offers vivid descriptions of words evoking specific tastes, often linked to foods from his childhood, such as “message” tasting like sausage.³⁸ Another individual, SC, reported in a case study that most words and many sounds induce tastes, smells, and even textural sensations in her mouth and throat.¹⁵¹ These experiences are not mere associations but are often felt as real, albeit transient, sensations.

Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR): Personal accounts of ASMR frequently describe the characteristic tingling sensation beginning in the scalp and moving down the neck and spine, accompanied by deep relaxation or euphoria.⁵⁶ Sanpreet Kaur, an advertising professional, uses role-play ASMR videos to calm her mind after a stressful day.⁶⁵ Many report discovering ASMR accidentally online and finding it helpful for sleep, anxiety, or simply unwinding.⁶⁴ The triggers are highly personal; what one finds intensely relaxing (e.g., whispering, tapping sounds), another might not respond to.⁵⁶

Misophonia: Narratives from individuals with misophonia paint a picture of profound distress. Common triggers like chewing, swallowing, or breathing sounds from others can evoke intense anger, panic, or disgust, making everyday situations like family meals unbearable.⁹⁹ One individual recounted, “I would sit there and try and put up with it, kind of feeling like my head was going to explode”.¹⁵⁴ Avoidance becomes a primary coping mechanism, leading to social isolation and strained relationships. The feeling of being unable to escape the sounds and the accompanying intense emotional surge is a common theme.

Aphantasia: The discovery of aphantasia is often an “aha!” moment. Blake Ross, co-creator of the Firefox browser, wrote, “I have never visualized anything in my entire life. I can’t ‘see’ my father’s face or a bouncing blue ball”.¹⁵⁵ Ed Catmull, former president of Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios, realized his lack of mental imagery when trying Tibetan meditation, unable to picture a simple sphere.¹¹⁵ Writer Cheyenne Blue describes having a “black screen” when closing her eyes but notes an active inner monologue and a strong ability to live in the present, which she views positively.¹¹⁴ Kathryn Nicolai, in her piece “‘I’m blind in my mind’”, describes the initial feeling of being “bummed out” upon realizing others had visual experiences she lacked, but also reframes it as a potential blessing.¹⁰⁹ Many aphantasics report that they had always assumed phrases like “picture this” were metaphorical until learning otherwise.¹⁰⁷ Memory is often described as fact-based rather than a visual replay; faces might be recognized in person but not conjured mentally.¹⁰⁸

Hyperphantasia: Individuals with hyperphantasia describe an inner world of extraordinary vividness. Artist Geraldine van Heemstra experiences novels “like a film in my mind” and recalls walks with immense detail.¹⁴⁰ Mats Holm, a Norwegian hyperphantasic, can create entire cityscapes in his mind and navigate them.¹⁴⁰ Ann English, a visual strategist, describes her hyperphantasia as a “cinema in her head” and a “superpower” that fuels her creativity, allowing her to see ideas unfold with stunning clarity.¹³⁷ However, this vividness can also be challenging; English avoids horror movies due to the intensity of the resulting mental images, and others report that nightmares can be terrifyingly real.¹³⁷

These personal perspectives highlight a common thread: the moment of discovering that one’s sensory or imaginative world is different, and the subsequent journey of understanding and integrating this uniqueness. For many, especially those with aphantasia, synesthesia, or misophonia, finding a name for their experience and connecting with a community of others who share it brings profound relief, validation, and a sense of belonging.²⁷ This underscores the psychological importance of recognition and social validation for neurodivergent individuals, reducing feelings of isolation or abnormality.

Furthermore, these accounts reveal the remarkable adaptability of the human brain. Particularly those with aphantasia often develop impressive compensatory strategies and alternative cognitive strengths—such as strong verbal memory, logical reasoning, or conceptual understanding—to navigate a world that frequently assumes or prioritizes visual thinking.² This demonstrates not only neural plasticity but also that diverse cognitive styles can lead to successful and fulfilling lives.

Finally, these narratives challenge normative assumptions about what constitutes a “rich” or “complete” sensory or cognitive life. An external observer might perceive a lack of visual imagery in aphantasia as a deficit, yet many aphantasics, once they understand their difference, do not feel they are “missing out” and may even appreciate aspects of their non-visual thinking.² Conversely, the seemingly “richer” world of hyperphantasia can bring its own set of challenges, such as sensory overwhelm or difficulty managing intense internal imagery.²² Synesthetes often treasure their unique perceptions.³ This relativity suggests that well-being and fulfillment are not solely dependent on conforming to a typical sensory profile but are shaped by individual adaptation, understanding, and acceptance.

6. Conclusion: Embracing Sensory Diversity

The exploration of synesthesia, Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR), misophonia, aphantasia, and hyperphantasia reveals a stunning tapestry of human sensory experience. These phenomena, far from being mere curiosities, offer profound insights into the workings of the brain and the nature of perception itself. They underscore that what we consider “reality” is a deeply personal construction, shaped by the unique wiring and functioning of each individual’s nervous system.

A core understanding emerging from the study of these experiences is that they largely represent variations in neurological processing rather than pathologies, although conditions like misophonia clearly demonstrate that some variations can lead to significant distress and functional impairment.⁵ Synesthesia gifts individuals with an automatic and consistent blending of senses ¹⁷; ASMR offers a pathway to relaxation and euphoria through specific sensory triggers for a segment of the population ¹⁹; aphantasia describes a life lived without voluntary mental pictures ⁸; and hyperphantasia paints an inner world of extraordinary vividness.²² Each of these, along with the intense aversion of misophonia, highlights the brain’s capacity for diverse perceptual outputs from similar environmental inputs.

The journey of these phenomena from anecdotal report to scientific investigation highlights a significant shift in perspective, moving from models that might quickly label difference as disorder towards a more inclusive neurodiversity framework.¹ This shift is critical. It encourages a focus on understanding, accommodation, and support, rather than solely on “correction” or “normalization.” For individuals, increased awareness—facilitated by research, media, and online communities—brings validation, reduces isolation, and empowers them to understand their own experiences.⁸¹ For science, it opens new avenues to explore the fundamental mechanisms of consciousness, perception, learning, and memory. For society, it fosters a greater appreciation for the rich spectrum of human cognitive and sensory styles. The role of education in schools and for clinicians in recognizing and appropriately responding to these variations cannot be overstated.⁹⁸

The study of these unique sensory experiences is a frontier in neuroscience and psychology. The relatively recent scientific “discovery” or popularization of conditions like ASMR and aphantasia, and the ongoing deeper investigations into synesthesia and misophonia, clearly indicate that vast aspects of human subjective experience and neurological variation remain to be fully understood.² Future research promises to uncover even more complexities. For synesthesia, this involves continued exploration of its genetic and neural bases, the influence of development and learning, and its cognitive impacts.²⁴ For ASMR, the focus will be on rigorous clinical trials to assess its therapeutic potential, achieving a deeper neurobiological understanding, and examining long-term effects.⁵⁹ Misophonia research urgently needs consensus on diagnostic criteria, the development of effective evidence-based treatments, and a better understanding of trigger variability and the role of non-auditory cues.⁸⁴ For aphantasia and hyperphantasia, future work will refine definitions and diagnostic approaches, further probe their neural underpinnings, explore their impact on learning and education, and map their full cognitive and emotional landscapes.¹⁰⁵

Ultimately, these unique sensory experiences powerfully demonstrate the profound interconnectedness of sensory processing, emotional response, and cognitive function. The way we see, hear, feel, taste, smell, and imagine is not a passive reflection of an objective world but an active construction, deeply intertwined with our emotional and cognitive fabric. Understanding these atypical connections provides fundamental insights into how these intricate systems interact in all individuals, continually refining our appreciation for the remarkable diversity and adaptability of the human mind. Embracing this sensory diversity is key to a more comprehensive and compassionate understanding of human experience.

Works cited

Synesthesia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment, accessed May 9, 2025, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24995-synesthesia
Aphantasia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment – Cleveland Clinic, accessed May 9, 2025, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25222-aphantasia
The colorful world of synesthesia – Science News Explores, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.snexplores.org/article/colorful-world-synesthesia
What is the Link Between Mental Imagery and Sensory Sensitivity? Insights from Aphantasia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8438787/
Clinical characteristics, impairment, and psychiatric morbidity in 102 …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9878468/
Misophonia: What It Is, Triggers, Symptoms & Treatment, accessed May 9, 2025, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24460-misophonia
What Is Synesthesia? Types, Examples, Causes & Diagnosis – GoodRx, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.goodrx.com/health-topic/neurological/synesthesia-types-examples-causes-diagnosis
www.psychologytoday.com, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/aphantasia#:~:text=Aphantasia%20is%20the%20inability%20to,is%20considered%20a%20neurological%20characteristic.
Understanding The Neuroscience Behind Synesthesia – BetterHelp, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/synesthesia/understanding-the-neuroscience-behind-synesthesia/
Tasty colorful sounds: How people with synesthesia experience the …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/synesthesia
Synesthesia – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia
A Brief 200-Year History of Synesthesia | The MIT Press Reader, accessed May 9, 2025, https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/a-brief-200-year-history-of-synesthesia/
Neural Basis of Individual Differences in Synesthetic Experiences – PMC – PubMed Central, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6632740/
Large portion of population may feel ASMR benefits | UCLA Health, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/large-portion-population-may-feel-asmr-benefits
From Tap to Tingle: The Science of ASMR – Health Cleveland Clinic, accessed May 9, 2025, https://health.clevelandclinic.org/what-is-asmr
Brain Tingles: The Physiological Benefits of ASMR – Neuroscience News, accessed May 9, 2025, https://neurosciencenews.com/asmr-physiology-9426/
my.clevelandclinic.org, accessed May 9, 2025, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24995-synesthesia#:~:text=Synesthesia%20is%20when%20your%20brain,colors%20to%20numbers%20and%20letters.
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5633022/#:~:text=The%20autonomous%20sensory%20meridian%20response%20(ASMR)%20is%20a%20sensory%20phenomenon,Barratt%20%26%20Davis%2C%202015).
Autonomous sensory meridian response: Your patients already …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.ccjm.org/content/87/12/751
en.wikipedia.org, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misophonia#:~:text=Misophonia%20is%20a%20disorder%20of,to%20evoke%20a%20%22misophonic%20reaction%22
dorothymemoryapp.com, accessed May 9, 2025, https://dorothymemoryapp.com/hyperphantasia/#:~:text=However%2C%20someone%20with%20hyperphantasia%20can,able%20to%20visualize%20text%2C%20too.
Hyperphantasia – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperphantasia
Neural basis of synesthesia – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_synesthesia
Synesthesia and learning: a critical review and novel theory – PMC, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3938117/
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3822291/#:~:text=Grapheme%2Dcolor%20synesthesia%20is%20a,sensation%20of%20%E2%80%9Cred%E2%80%9D).
Grapheme learning and grapheme-color synesthesia: toward a …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3822291/
Grapheme–color synesthesia – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme%E2%80%93color_synesthesia
Synesthesia and my innate love for color – VENI ETIAM PHOTOGRAPHY, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.veni-etiam-photography.com/blog/your-name-is-dark-purple-how-synesthesia-shapes-what-i-see
Chromesthesia – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromesthesia
The MULTISENSE Test of Lexical-Gustatory Synaesthesia: An automated online diagnostic, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31161427/
en.wikipedia.org, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromesthesia#:~:text=Chromesthesia%20or%20sound%2Dto%2Dcolor,associations%2Fperceptions%20in%20daily%20life.
How Does Chromesthesia Affect The Brain? – BetterHelp, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/synesthesia/how-does-chromesthesia-affect-the-brain/
Sensing Sounds on the Skin: A Review of Auditory-Tactile …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/sensing-sounds-on-the-skin-a-review-of-auditorytactile-synesthesia-and-its-implications-for-perception-and-attention-101940.html
Neural Substrates of Sound–Touch Synesthesia after a Thalamic Lesion – PubMed Central, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6671766/
Acquired auditory-tactile synesthesia – The Ro Lab, accessed May 9, 2025, https://rolab.ws.gc.cuny.edu/files/2017/05/Ward07.pdf
en.wikipedia.org, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical%E2%80%93gustatory_synesthesia#:~:text=Lexical%E2%80%93gustatory%20synesthesia%20is%20a,of%20both%20temperature%20and%20texture.
Lexical–gustatory synesthesia – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical%E2%80%93gustatory_synesthesia
Lexical-gustatory synesthesia – The Synesthesia Tree, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.thesynesthesiatree.com/2021/03/lexical-gustatory-synesthesia.html
The Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Grapheme-Color Synesthesia – Blacklight – PSU-ETD, accessed May 9, 2025, https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/catalog/21164mld43
Survival of the Synesthesia Gene: Why Do People Hear Colors and …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3222625/
Living With Synesthesia – Verywell Mind, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.verywellmind.com/living-with-synesthesia-7482435
What is Synaesthesia? – purlla.com, accessed May 9, 2025, https://purlla.com/what-is-synaesthesia/
Grapheme-color synaesthesia is associated with a distinct cognitive style – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00632/full
Color synesthesia improves color but impairs motion perception – PMC – PubMed Central, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4030442/
Synesthesia – Psychology Today, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/synesthesia
Synesthesia and Sensory Processing | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, accessed May 9, 2025, https://oxfordre.com/neuroscience/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264086.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264086-e-312?p=emailAieP35YRn/Ct.&d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264086.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264086-e-312
What Happens During A Synesthesia Test? | BetterHelp, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/synesthesia/what-happens-during-a-synesthesia-test/
Synesthesia: a colorful word with a touching sound? – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00763/full
Back to the future: synaesthesia could be due to associative learning – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00702/full
What is the relationship between Aphantasia, Synaesthesia and Autism?, accessed May 9, 2025, https://eagleman.com/papers/Danceetal_2021_AphantasiaAutismSynesthesia.pdf
Synesthesia and mental imagery: Recent advances – J-Stage, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jia/20/1/20_27/_html/-char/en
Synaesthesia, autism and perception – Janina Neufeld’s team – Karolinska Institutet, accessed May 9, 2025, https://ki.se/en/research/research-areas-centres-and-networks/research-groups/synaesthesia-autism-and-perception-janina-neufelds-team
Synesthesia: Phenomenology And Neuropsychology A Review of Current Knowledge, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247692592_Synesthesia_Phenomenology_And_Neuropsychology_A_Review_of_Current_Knowledge
ASMR: Psychological, Neurological, and Therapeutic Insights – Simply Put Psych, accessed May 9, 2025, https://simplyputpsych.co.uk/psych-101-1/a-call-for-asmr-research
A Review of Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response – Grey Matters Journal, accessed May 9, 2025, https://greymattersjournal.org/asmr/
ASMR: Meaning, examples, benefits, and how to practice – therapist.com, accessed May 9, 2025, https://therapist.com/brain-and-body/asmr-meaning/
ASMR and Mental Health: Can It Really Reduce Stress and Anxiety? – McLean Hospital, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.mcleanhospital.org/essential/asmr
ASMR for Anxiety: Evidence, Triggers, and More – Healthline, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.healthline.com/health/asmr-anxiety
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR): A PRISMA …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375302843_Autonomous_Sensory_Meridian_Response_ASMR_A_PRISMA-Guided_Systematic_Review
The Psychology of ASMR: Understanding Its Appeal and Effects on the Parasympathetic Nervous System – Summit Counselling Services, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.summitcs.ca/edmontontherapyblog/the-psychology-of-asmr-understanding-its-appeal-and-effects-on-the-parasympathetic-nervous-system
More relaxing than nature? The impact of ASMR content on psychological and physiological measures of parasympathetic activity | Neuroscience of Consciousness | Oxford Academic, accessed May 9, 2025, https://academic.oup.com/nc/article/doi/10.1093/nc/niaf012/8127084?rss=1
Why Do Only Some People Get the ASMR Tingles? – Verywell Health, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.verywellhealth.com/asmr-tingles-anxiety-5218195
ASMR: The Unexpected Mental Health Benefits – Nystrom & Associates, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.nystromcounseling.com/coping-skills/asmr-the-unexpected-mental-health-benefits/
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR): a flow-like mental state – PMC, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4380153/
ASMR: You’re One Tap Away From Blissful Relaxation – Fluent Health, accessed May 9, 2025, https://fluentinhealth.com/blog/learn-about-asmr-its-impact-on-your-body
Similar but different: High prevalence of synesthesia in autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) – PubMed Central, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9558233/
An Examination of Personality Traits Associated with … – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00247/full
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response: Phenomenon That Promote Happiness, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=107583
(PDF) How everyday sounds can trigger strong emotions: ASMR, misophonia and the feeling of wellbeing – ResearchGate, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346864511_How_everyday_sounds_can_trigger_strong_emotions_ASMR_misophonia_and_the_feeling_of_wellbeing
Why Don’t I Get ASMR? 5 Reasons You’re Not Feeling The Tingles, accessed May 9, 2025, https://weloveasmr154526172.wordpress.com/2021/02/21/why-dont-i-get-asmr-5-reasons-youre-not-feeling-the-tingles/
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) and Culture – Digital Commons@Lindenwood University, accessed May 9, 2025, https://digitalcommons.lindenwood.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=psych_journals
(PDF) Two Studies of Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR): The Relationship between ASMR and Music-Induced Frisson – ResearchGate, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330459645_Two_Studies_of_Autonomous_Sensory_Meridian_Response_ASMR_The_Relationship_between_ASMR_and_Music-Induced_Frisson
Sensory determinants of the autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR): understanding the triggers – PMC – PubMed Central, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5633022/
Research on How ASMR Marketing Influences Consumers’ Emotion-Dependent Purchase Behavior | Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.ewadirect.com/proceedings/aemps/article/view/22095
(PDF) Research Priorities for Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response: An Interdisciplinary Delphi Study – ResearchGate, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386360584_Research_Priorities_for_Autonomous_Sensory_Meridian_Response_An_Interdisciplinary_Delphi_Study
Autonomous sensory Meridian response as a physically felt signature of positive and negative emotions – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1183996/full
The Brain Basis for Misophonia – PMC, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5321671/
Assessment and Intervention for Individuals With Misophonia – Giacomo Crivellaro, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.giacomocrivellaro.it/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/wiese2021.pdf
The Brain Basis for Misophonia – PubMed, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28162895/
Misophonia: When Certain Sounds Trigger … – Psychiatry.org, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.psychiatry.org/news-room/apa-blogs/misophonia-when-certain-sounds-trigger-emotional-d
Misophonia May Actually Be Far More Common Than We Thought …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.sciencealert.com/misophonia-may-actually-be-far-more-common-than-we-thought
Sensory Overload: Navigating Misophonia in Daily Life – Reframing Autism, accessed May 9, 2025, https://reframingautism.org.au/sensory-overload-navigating-misophonia-in-daily-life/
Full article: Triggering Misophonia: The Importance of Spectral Information, Temporal Information, and Action Identification, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/25742442.2024.2302295
Investigating Misophonia: A Review of the Empirical Literature, Clinical Implications, and a Research Agenda – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2018.00036/full
Psychometric validation of a brief self-report measure of misophonia symptoms and functional impairment: The duke-vanderbilt misophonia screening questionnaire – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.897901/full
Misophonia, accessed May 9, 2025, http://neuroagility.com/wp-content/uploads/Wikipedia2012-Misophonia.pdf
Misophonia: Analysis of the neuroanatomic patterns at the … – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2022.827998/full
Neural evidence for non-orofacial triggers in mild misophonia – PMC, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9397125/
Misophonia Research | Interoception Neuroscience Lab – The University of Iowa, accessed May 9, 2025, https://interoception.lab.uiowa.edu/misophonia-research
A Quick Misophonia Guide for Doctors and Clinicians – Dr. Jennifer Jo Brout, accessed May 9, 2025, https://drjenniferbrout.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Misophonia-For-Doctors-2022.pdf
Advances in Understanding the Nature and Features of Misophonia …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/25714/advances-in-understanding-the-nature-and-features-of-misophonia/magazine
Misophonia shares genetic links with depression, anxiety, and PTSD – PsyPost, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.psypost.org/misophonia-shares-genetic-links-with-depression-anxiety-and-ptsd/
Targeting beliefs and behaviours in misophonia: A case series from a UK specialist psychology service, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7615577/
Misophonia Impact Report | Duke University School of Medicine, accessed May 9, 2025, https://medschool.duke.edu/misophonia-impact-report
Public awareness of Misophonia in U.S. adults: a Population-based study – ResearchGate, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367126658_Public_awareness_of_Misophonia_in_US_adults_a_Population-based_study
Understanding the misophonic experience: a mixed method study – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1493676/full
The Sound Sensitivity Symptoms Questionnaire Version 2.0 (SSSQ2) as a Screening Tool for Assessment of Hyperacusis, Misophonia and Noise Sensitivity: Factor Analysis, Validity, Reliability, and Minimum Detectable Change – PubMed, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39851384/
The International Misophonia Foundation: Front Page, accessed May 9, 2025, https://misophoniafoundation.com/
Accessibility Tools, accessed May 9, 2025, https://misophoniainternational.com/
International Misophonia Research Network – soQuiet, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.soquiet.org/mrn
2025-Moving Forward-Misophonia – College of Applied Health Sciences, accessed May 9, 2025, https://ahs.illinois.edu/2025-mf-misophonia
Aphantasia: Psychological Impact, Strengths & Adaptations – Click2Pro, accessed May 9, 2025, https://click2pro.com/blog/aphantasia-psychological-impact
Aphantasia: Why Some People Can’t Visualize Images – Health, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.health.com/aphantasia-8581670
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11518826/#:~:text=Study%201%20revealed%20prevalence%20estimates,studies%20by%20Dance%20et%20al.
A decade of aphantasia research: what we’ve learned about people who can’t visualise, accessed May 9, 2025, https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-health-and-life-sciences/a-decade-of-aphantasia-research-what-weve-learned-about-people-who-cant-visualise/
Probing the unimaginable: new data help to understand the nature of aphantasia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://parisbraininstitute.org/news/probing-unimaginable-new-data-help-understand-nature-aphantasia
How Did You First Discover You Were Aphantasic? · Aphantasia …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://aphantasia.com/discussion/5994/how-did-you-first-discover-you-were-aphantastic/
Breakfast Conversations: Understanding Life with Aphantasia – Groninger Studentenkrant, accessed May 9, 2025, https://studentenkrant.org/2024/11/breakfast-conversations-understanding-life-with-aphantasia/
Living with Aphantasia: A Personal Insight into Mind Blindness – Nothing Much Happens, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.nothingmuchhappens.com/media/im-blind-in-my-mind
Exploring Aphantasia: The Mind Without a Mental Picture – Neuroscience News, accessed May 9, 2025, https://neurosciencenews.com/aphantasia-visual-imagination-25823/
Who Are Blind In Their Mind? | Aphantasia Or Hyperphantasia? – Pixalent, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pixalent.com/animation-and-hyperphantasia-what-is-hyperphantasia/
Aphantasia: What we’ve learned about people who can’t “visualize …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.earth.com/news/aphantasia-research-results-people-who-cant-visualize-information/
Aphantasia Network · Image Free Thinking, accessed May 9, 2025, https://aphantasia.com/
Interview about aphantasia with Cheyenne Blue – Jae, accessed May 9, 2025, https://jae-fiction.com/aphantasia-cheyenne-blue/
Aphantasia Ex-Pixar Chief Ed Catmull | PDF | Art – Scribd, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/document/405587158/Aphantasia-Ex-Pixar-Chief-Ed-Catmull
Study finds link between functional brain connectivity and aphantasia | For the press | eLife, accessed May 9, 2025, https://elifesciences.org/for-the-press/7ead8959/study-finds-link-between-functional-brain-connectivity-and-aphantasia
The Neural Underpinnings of Aphantasia: A Case Study of Identical Twins | bioRxiv, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.23.614521v1.full-text
Hippocampal-occipital connectivity reflects autobiographical memory deficits in aphantasia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/94916v2
Unlocking the Mind’s Map: Aphantasia and Map Cognition – NeuroCarto, accessed May 9, 2025, https://neurocarto.geography.wisc.edu/2024/04/04/aphantasia/
Mind blindness decoded: people who can’t see with their ‘mind’s eye’ still activate their visual cortex, study finds – UNSW Sydney, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.unsw.edu.au/newsroom/news/2025/01/mind-blindness-decoded-people-who-cant-see-with-their-minds-eye-still-activate-their-visual-cortex-study-finds
Aphantasia And Hyperphantasia: What We Know After A Decade Of …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://aphantasia.com/article/science/aphantasia-and-hyperphantasia/
Understanding Aphantasia: Insights from a Therapist’s Experience – Dig a Little Deeper, Psychotherapy & Counselling, accessed May 9, 2025, https://digalittledeeper.ca/five-things-ive-learned-about-aphantasia-as-a-therapist/
Effect of Aphantasia on Academic Achievement and Learning Styles in Higher Education, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385716160_Effect_of_Aphantasia_on_Academic_Achievement_and_Learning_Styles_in_Higher_Education
Edwin Catmull – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Catmull
Defining and ‘diagnosing’ aphantasia: Condition or individual difference? – LSE Research Online, accessed May 9, 2025, http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/120283/3/1_s2.0_S0010945223002307_main.pdf
An international estimate of the prevalence of differing visual imagery abilities – Frontiers, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454107/full
Quantifying Aphantasia through drawing: Those without visual imagery show deficits in object but not spatial memory, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7856239/
Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379347399_Aphantasia_and_hyperphantasia_exploring_imagery_vividness_extremes
Aphantasia Research Project – Psychologie – Universität Bonn, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.psychologie.uni-bonn.de/en/department/departments/personality-psychology/research-projects/aphantasia
Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes – PubMed, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38548492/
Mental Imagery and Aphantasia Research Group – University of Plymouth, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/research/psychology/psychology-neuroscience/mental-imagery-and-aphantasia-research-group
A Systematic Review of Aphantasia: Concept, Measurement, Neural Basis, and Theory Development – PubMed, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39330760/
What Is Hyperphantasia? How to Tell If You Have an Extremely Vivid Imagination, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.wellandgood.com/health/hyperphantasia
Living with Hyperphantasia – NeuroQ, accessed May 9, 2025, https://neuroq.com/blog/living-with-hyperphantasia/
7 Senses of Hyperphantasia: Our Astonishing Multisensory Imagination Spectrum – Lifecurious, accessed May 9, 2025, https://slev.life/hyperphantasia
Hyperphantasia – Definition, Symptoms, and Tests – Dorothy, accessed May 9, 2025, https://dorothymemoryapp.com/hyperphantasia/
Unlocking Hyperphantasia: The Power of Vivid Imagination – Ann English, accessed May 9, 2025, https://hub.annenglish.co.uk/blog/hyperphantasia-my-secret-superpower-and-maybe-yours-too
Hyperphantasia: The Truth About Photorealistic Imagination – memoryOS, accessed May 9, 2025, https://memoryos.com/article/hyperphantasia-revealing-the-truth-about-photorealistic-imagination
Behavioral and Neural Signatures of Visual Imagery Vividness Extremes: Aphantasia versus Hyperphantasia – PMC, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8186241/
Hyperphantasia and the quest to understand vivid imaginations …, accessed May 9, 2025, https://creativityworkshop.com/articles/hyperphantasia-and-the-quest-to-understand-vivid-imaginations
What Are the Benefits/Uses of Hyperphantasia? – Reddit, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/hyperphantasia/comments/1hx2b09/what_are_the_benefitsuses_of_hyperphantasia/
Extreme Imagination in Mind, Brain and Culture – GtR – UKRI, accessed May 9, 2025, https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=AH/R004684/1
PROJECTS | Reshanne Reeder | UK, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.reshannereeder.com/projects
Research on hyperphantasia & visual perception — participants needed (compensated), accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/hyperphantasia/comments/1kbhqwx/research_on_hyperphantasia_visual_perception/
osf.io, accessed May 9, 2025, https://osf.io/rfzdt/download/#:~:text=Participants%20estimated%20the%20prevalence%20of,and%201%25%20for%20aphantasia).
An international estimate of the prevalence of differing visual imagery abilities – PubMed, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39474086/
An international estimate of the prevalence of differing visual imagery abilities – PMC, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11518826/
PsyArXiv Preprints | How People Estimate the Prevalence of Aphantasia and Hyperphantasia in the Population – OSF, accessed May 9, 2025, https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/rfzdt
Dr Reshanne Reeder: “Did another interview on hyperphantasia, characterised as “superlative mental imagery”. Like aphantasia, we are finding that it is a multidimensional construct that affects many other cognitive domains. Are you hyperphantasic? www.self.com/story/hyperp…” — Bluesky, accessed May 9, 2025, https://bsky.app/profile/kerblooee.bsky.social/post/3lgecqulons2o
The Highly Sensitive Person (HSP): A Deep Dive into Sensory Processing Sensitivity, accessed May 9, 2025, https://huntingtonpsych.com/the-highly-sensitive-person-hsp-a-deep-dive-into-sensory-processing-sensitivity
Tasty non-words and neighbours: The cognitive roots of lexical-gustatory synaesthesia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223441798_Tasty_non-words_and_neighbours_The_cognitive_roots_of_lexical-gustatory_synaesthesia
A taste for words and sounds: a case of lexical-gustatory and sound-gustatory synesthesia – PMC – PubMed Central, accessed May 9, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3806228/
Falling awake (PURE Unintentional ASMR interview Part 1) – YouTube, accessed May 9, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-wYIXtZrl8
Personal experiences 1 – MISOPHONIA UK, accessed May 9, 2025, http://www.misophonia-uk.org/personal-experiences-1.html
Blake Ross – Wikipedia, accessed May 9, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blake_Ross